The Work of Representation Essay Example for Free

The Work of Representation Essay 1 Representation, meaning and language At first we have to know thatï ¼Å¡ Representation is an essential part of the process by which meaning is produced and exchanged between members of a culture. It does involve the use of language, of signs and images which stand for or represent things. And surly it is not a simple or straightforward process. How this article exploring the concept of representation connect meaning and language to cultureï ¼Å¸ We will be drawing a distinction between three different account or theoriesï ¼Å¡the reflective, the intentional and the constructionist approaches to representation. Most of this text will be exploring the constructionist approach with two major variants or models of the constructionist approach, the semiotic approach- Ferdinand de Saussure and the discursive approach- Michel Foucault. But we have to answer the question firstï ¼Å¡what does the word representation really meanï ¼Å¸ 1.1 Making meaning, Representing things Representation is the production of the meaning of the concepts in our minds through language. There are two processes, two systems of representation. First, there is the system by which all sort of objects, people and events are correlated with a set of concepts or mental representations which we carry around in our heads.ï ¼Ë†like chair, tableï ¼â€° Second, Language is therefore the second system of representation. (When we say we belong to the same culture, it is because we interpret the world in similar ways. That’s why culture is sometimes defined in terms of shared meaning or shared conceptual maps. However we must also able to represent or exchange meanings and concepts.) The relation between things, concepts and signs lies at the heart of the production of meaning in language. The process which links these three elements together is what we call Representation. 1.2 Language and Representation As people who belong to same culture must share a broadly similar conceptual map, so they must also share the same way of interpreting the signs of a language. In the SHEEP example: In order to interpret them, we must have access to the two systems of representation: to a conceptual map which correlates the sheep in the field with the concept of a sheep: and a language system which is visual language, bear some resemblance to the real thing of looks like it in some way. The relationship in the system of representation between sign, the concept and the object to which they might be used to refer is entirely arbitrary.(Tree will not mind if we used the word Seert to represent the concept of them) 1.3 Sharing the codes The meaning is constructed by the system of representation. It is constructed and fixed by the code, which sets up the correlation between our conceptual system and our language system in such a way that, every time we think of a tree the code tells us to use the English word TREE, or Chinese word æ ¨ ¹. The code tells us that in our culture! One way of thinking about culture is in terms of these shared conceptual maps, shared language systems and the codes which govern the relationships of translation between them. Not because such knowledge is imprinted in their genes, but because they learn its conventions and so gradually become culture persons. They unconsciously internalize the codes which allow them to express certain concepts and ideas through their systems of representation. But of our social, cultural and linguistic conventions, then meaning can never be finally fixed, we can all agree to allow words to carry somewhat different meanings. Social and linguistic conventions do change over time. 1.4 Theories of representation In the reflective approach, meaning is thought to lie in the object, person, idea or event in the real world, and language functions like a mirror, to reflect the true meaning as it already exists in the world. We can also call it as mimetic approach. The second approach to meaning in representation argues the opposite case. It holds that it is the speaker the author, who imposes his or her unique meaning on the world through language. Words mean what the author intends they should mean. This is the intentional approach. The third approach recognizes this public, social character of language. Things don’t mean: we construct meaning, using representational systems. Hence it is called the constructionist approach. 1.5 The language of traffic lights The simplest example of this point, which is critical for an understanding of how languages function as representational systems, is the famous traffic lights example. According to the constructionist approach, colors and the language of traffic lights’ work as a signifying or representational system. In the language of traffic lights, it is the sequence and position of the colors, as well as the colors themselves, which enable them to carry meaning and thus function as signs. It is the code that fixes the meaning, not color itself. This also has wider implications for the theory of representation and meaning in language. It means that signs themselves cannot fix meaning. Instead, meaning depends on the relation between a sign and a concept which is fixed by a code. Meaning the constructionist would say, is relational. 2. Saussure’s legacy In the important move, Saussure analysed the sign into two further elements. There was, he argued, the form, and there was the idea or concept in your head with which the form was associated. Saussure called the first element, the signifier, and the second element the signified. Signifierï ¼Å¡ The word or image of a Walkman, for example Signifiedï ¼Å¡ The concept of a portable cassette-player in your head Saussure also insisted on what we called the arbitrary nature of the sign: There is no natural or inevitable link between the signifier and the signified. Signs do not possess a fixed or essential meaning. What signifies, according to Saussure, is not RED or the essence of red-ness, but the difference between RED and GREEN. Signs are members of a system and are defined in relation it the other members of that system. Furthermore, the relation between the signifier and the signified, which is fixed by our cultural codes, is not permanently fixed. BLACK is dark, evil etc. BLACK is beauty. However, if meaning changes, historically, and is never finally fixed, then it follows that taking the meaning must involve an active process of interpretation. There is a necessary and inevitable imprecision about language. 2.1 The social part of language Saussure divided language into two parts. 1.The first consisted of the general rules and codes of the linguistic system, which all its users must share, if it is to be of use as a mean of communication. Saussure called the structure of language, the langue. 2.the second part consisted of the particular acts of apeaking or writing or drawing, which are produced by an actual speaker or writer. He called this, the parole. For Saussure, the underlying structure of rules and codes was the social part of language, the part which could be studied with the law-like precision of a science because of its closed, limited nature. The second part of language, the individual speech-act or utterance, he regarded as the surface of language. In separating the social part of language from the individual act of communication, Saussure broke with our common-sense notion of how language works†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ The author decides what she wants to say, but she cannot decide whether or not to use the rules of language. Critique of Saussure’s model In his own work, he tended to focus almost exclusively on the two aspects of the sign-signifier and signified. He gave little or no attention to how this relation between signifier/signified could serve the purpose of what we called reference. Another problem is that Saussure tended to focus on the formal aspects of language-how language actually works. However, Saussure’s focus on language may have been too exclusive. The attention to its formal aspects did divert attention away from the more interactive and dialogic features of language. Later cultural theorist learned from Saussure’s structuralism but abandoned its scientific premise. Language remains rule-governed. But it is not a closed system which can be reduced to its formal elements. 3.From language to culture: linguistics to semiotics The general approach to the study of signs in culture, and of culture as a sort of language, which Saussure foreshadowed, is now generally known by the term semiotics. The French critic, Roland Barthes, he brought a semiotic approach to bear on reading popular culture, treating these activities and objects as signs, as a language through which meaning is communicated. In much the same way, the French anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss, not by analyzing how these Amazonian peoples, but in terms of what they were trying to say, what messages about the culture they communicated. In the semiotic approach, not only words and images but objects themselves can function as signifiers in the production of meaning. Clothes, for example. In this example, we have moved from the very narrow linguistic level from which we drew examples to a wider, cultural level†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Barthes called the first, descriptive level, the level of denotation: the second level, that of connotation. 3.1 Myth today In his essay Myth today, in Mythologies, Barthes gives another example which helps us to see exactly how representation is working at this second, broader cultural level. a.A black soldier is giving the French flag a salute. b.The Panzani ad for spaghetti and vegetables in a string bag as a myth about Italian national culture. Think of ads, which work in the same way. 4. Discourse, power and subject Already, in Roland Barthes’s work in the 1960s, as we have seen, Saussure’s linguistic model is developed through its application to a much wider field of signs and representations. Semiotics seemed to confine the process of representation to language, and to treat it as a closed, rather static, system†¦some people had more power to speak about some subject than others. Models of representation, these critics agued, ought to focus on these broader issues of knowledge and power. Foucault used the word representation in a narrower sense than we are using it here, but he is considered to have contributed to a novel and significant general approach to the problem of representation. What concerned him was the production of knowledge through what he called discourse. His work was much more historically grounded, more attentive to historical specificities, than the semiotic approach. As he said ‘relation of power, not relation of meaning’ were his main concern. 4.1 From language to discourse Foucault studied not language, but discourse as a system of representation. By ‘discourse’, Foucault meant ‘a group of statements which provide a language for talking bout a particular topic at a particular historical moment†¦.Discourse is a bout the production of knowledge through language. Discourse, Foucault argued, never consist of one statement, one text, one action or one source. The same discourse, characteristic of the way of thinking or the state of knowledge at one time, will appear across a range of texts, and as forms of conduct, at a number of different institutional sites within society. However, whenever these discursive event refer to the same object,†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦, then they are said by Foucault to belong to the same discursive formation. Nothing has any meaning outside of discourse. 4.2 Historicizing discourse: discursive practices Things meant something and were true, he argued, only within a specific historical context. He thought that, in each period, discourse produced forms of knowledge, objects, subjects and practices of knowledge, which differed radically from period to period, with no necessary continuity between them. The mental illness example The homosexual example The hysterical woman example Knowledge about and practices around all these subjects, Foucault argued, were historically and culturally specific. They did not and could not meaningfully exist outside specific discourse. 4.3 From discourse to power/knowledge In his later work Foucault became even more concerned with how knowledge was put to work through discursive practice in specific institutional settings to regulate the conduct of others. This foregrounding of the relation between discourse, knowledge and power marked a significant development in the constructionist approach to representation which we have been outlineing. Foucault’s main argument against the classical Marxist theory of ideology was that it tended to reduce all the relation between knowledge and power to a question of class power and class interests. Secondly, he argued that Marxism tended to truth. But Foucault did not believe that any form of thought could claim an absolute truth of this kind, outside the play of discourse. The Gramsci’s theory has some similarities to Foucault’s position. Knowledge linked to power, not only assumes the authority of the truth but has the power to make itself true. The Regime of truth! Secondly, Foucault advanced an altogether novel conception of power. We tend to think of power as always radiating in a single direction and come from a specific source. It is deployed and exercised through a net-like organization. This suggests that we are all, to some degree, caught up in its circulation- oppressors and oppressed. 4.5 Charcot and the performance of hysteria The activity 7, look the figure 1.8 and answer the follow questions. (page 54.) 5. Where is the subject The conventional notion thinks of the subject as an individual who is fully endowed with consciousness†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦it suggests that, although other people may misunderstand us, we always understand ourselves. Indeed, this is one of Foucault’s most radical propositions: subject is produced with discourse. Foucault’s subject seems to be produced through discourse in two fidderent senses or places. First, the discourse itself produces subject. But the discourse also produces a place for the subject. Subject-positions 5.1 How to make sense of Velasquez’ Las Meninas 5.2 The subject of/in representation Look the Diego Velasquez’ Las Meninas, and follow the question in activity 9. 6. Conclusion: representation, meaning and language reconsidered Representation is the process by which members of a culture use language to produce meaning. Meaning, consequently, will always change, from on culture or period to another. Because meanings are always changing and slipping, codes operate more like social conventions than like fixed laws or unbreakable rules. In semiotic, we will recall the importance of signifier/signified, langue/parole and myth, and how the marking of difference and binary oppositions are crucial for meaning. In the discursive approach, we will recall discursive formation, power/knowledge, the idea of a regime of truth, the way discourse also produces the subject and defines the subject-positions from which knowledge proceeds and indeed, the return of questions about the subject to the field of representation.

Essay --

Jhumpa Lahiri is an Indian American author who likes to write mainly about the experiences of other Indian Americans. She is a very successful author. She won the Pulitzer Prize for her first novel and her fiction appears in The New Yorker often. One of those works from 1998 is a short story, â€Å"A Temporary Matter†, about a husband and a wife, Shukumar and Shoba, whose electricity will be temporarily cut off for one hour for five days. This seems simple enough, but as you read the story you find that maybe it’s their marriage that might be the â€Å"temporary matter† itself. The title is interesting from the beginning. It gives us hints about the setting, the characters and their situation, as well as plants the whole theme of the story. The story circles around two big things, the death of a baby and Shukumar and Shoba’s failing marriage. Although this is the case, it also focuses a lot on the little things. Lahiri uses small details to point out the pain and lack of communication between Shukumar and Shoba. When Shukumar thinks back to the last time he saw Shoba pregnant, he doesn’t remember if she looked happy or sad, he remembers the much smaller things, such as the cab. â€Å"Each time he thought of that moment, the last moment he saw Shoba pregnant, it was the cab he remembered most, a station wagon, painted red with blue lettering. It was cavernous compared to their own car. Although Shukumar was six feet tall, with hands too big ever to rest comfortably in the pockets of his jeans, he felt dwarfed in the back seat.† As incon siderate as it may seem, this is actually how many people remember important events in their lives. Important events don’t go through our memory as sequential narratives, but in a series of random feelings, sens... ... all of the little, yet important details. In the end, we understand that all this time Shoba has been trying to tell Shukumar that she has been looking for apartments and finally found one. Shukumar is relieved, yet sickened by the thought of her wanting a life separate from him. This shakes him into sharing information that is sacred to Shoba in hopes that it would always be her mystery; the sex of their baby. We are left with a cliffhanger. All we know is the information the last sentence provides us, â€Å"They wept together, for the first time in their lives, for the things they now knew.† Possibly them weeping is a sign of them coming together to grieve. It marks another turning point in their lives, much like when they lost their child. We just don’t know if that turning point is them staying together or weeping in knowing that they are going their separate ways.

Potluck Essay

The meaning of Doublespeak in Lutz opinion†¦ The essay â€Å"Doublespeak† specifically dives into the significance of the idea. The author does not hold back, but early on defines the general meaning of Doublespeak. The author’s introduction is the explanation of doublespeak in general context. He lets the reader know beforehand about many tangents in double speak. He mentions four types of doublespeak which are euphemism, Jargon, gobblygook, and complex language. From these sub groups of double speak, he further explains detail of such doublespeak and its effect to the public. In essence, the effect of the author is to nform the audience precisely about doublespeak in many angles. He does not take a strong stance on his argument, but he does let his audience know that double speak is an effective rhetoric to use in certain circumstances. The idea of euphemism is to sugar coat an instance. This can be used by simple diction or a whole statement. It is up to the writer to choose his/her method. Lutz leaves the choice to the audience, but provides certain examples to let the audience be informed with the affect of euphemism in a statement. In essence, he provides short and precise examples by omparing a straightforward statement with a doublespeak statement. He informs the reader that euphemism is a rhetoric that creates vagueness in a blunt statement. In my opinion, Lutz did a fine Job. The omission of any statements will leave the essay vague and blank, in a sense. Secondly, Lutz explains and defines Jargon to be a prestigious type language to impress and inform an audience. Many of the high class workers use this rhetoric in their professions to make a good impression. In essence, a Jargon can be used in a hospital, court, or any other professional environment. Lutz rovides the reader with positives and negatives regarding this rhetoric. He informs his reader to be well aware of using such rhetoric. The examples provided are precise and clear cut. In essence, he gets his point through. Adding on, gobblygook is a certain doublespeak that is similar to a Jargon, but way out of proportion with its complexity. Lutz lets the reader know to use this language in specific rhetorical situations. He informs the audience that gobblygook is a type of rhetoric that is used impress a bunch of ignorant audience, or to impress an educated group of audience hom will actually understand the meaning of such words. Besides that, it is not proper to use in personal conversations – unless you’re Einstein. Lutz efficiently explains this idea by providing examples to the audience. Furthermore, complex language is a type of rhetoric that is considered moderate compared to gobblygook. It’s not out of proportion, but can stray away the audience if used too much. In oral arguments it is not functional. If used in papers, it can work, but if used too much, it can confuse the reader. Lutz explains the moderation of this rhetoric compared to Jargon and gobblygook. In essence, Lutz does a fine Job explaining the definitions of double speak in all angles. He gives the audience a general definition and provides general examples to prepare the audience for the lesson. He divides the four main definitions and gives sub examples for each definition. In addition he connects each definition back and forth providing the audience will clarification on his topic. He classifies his work in a general topic, then provides examples, and ultimately connects it to the overall meaning of doublespeak. In essence, he does an effective Job explaining the audience the general idea of doublespeak.

Gay Marriage Should Be Legal - 1480 Words

Currently, the Webster’s New World Dictionary defines the word married as being husband and wife, yet there are millions of gay activists who are fighting for a new meaning. They believe marriage is more than a piece of paper and a set of rings. The hope is that marriage could be defined as a â€Å"public recognition of a private commitment† or â€Å"emotional, financial, and psychological bond† between two people (Sullivan 53). Gay activists believe that taking away the ability to have a publicly recognized relationship or an accepted union is an infringement of their public equality. However, non-supporters of this cause believe that gay marriage is â€Å"an attack on the institution of marriage† (Capello 25). These dissenting opinions are what†¦show more content†¦Sullivan develops his argument with a series of problem and solution type sections towards many of the common counterarguments against gay marriage. Sullivan’s purpose in his piece is to answer many counter arguments and debug the myths and stereotypes regarding homosexuals and homosexual marriage in order to give the reader several facts to base their opinion on and possibly even gain support for gay marriage rights. Sullivan employs a scholarly like tone, simply stating the holes in counterarguments and stating the reasons why by using facts and little bias, gaining the audience’s trust. The major argument in Gays and Lesbians Should Be Allowed to Marry is that there is no legitimate reason to withhold the right to a legal marriage from two deeply in love people, be it a man and a woman or a man and a man or a woman and a woman. To get his readers to believe him, Sullivan uses a wonderful use of logos by stating simple fact with little to no bias in most sections of this piece. By stating many counterarguments, like if gays should raise children, he catches the attention of the reader and clears up the myths they might have heard. One idea that some government officials, like Marilyn Musgrave, believe in is that a law should withhold marriage rights from gays. The controversial part of this is that laws are made to protect minorities, not limit